This page contains a Flash digital edition of a book.
Posterior Segment Age-related Macular Degeneration


between ARM risk and hypermetropia was found in the Blue Mountains eye study (OR 2.0)261


hyperopia compared with emmetropia).262 or HR given).35,125


and the Rotterdam study (OR 1.20 for advanced In a further Blue Mountains


eye study no association was found between hypermetropia and the five-year incidence of ARM.263


2.31) were associated with hypermetropia in the AREDS study.128


studies have reported no effect of hypermetropia on risk for developing ARMD.124,264


Large drusen (OR 1.28) and CNV (OR Other


A biological mechanism for increased risk of ARMD with hypermetropia has not yet been elucidated. One study suggests shorter, thicker eyes with increased scleral rigidity decreases choroidal blood flow and thus retinal nutrient and waste exchange, leading to increased oxidative stress.262


Miscellaneous


Other, less reported non-modifiable risk factors inconsistently associated with ARMD include hand-grip strength, optic disc appearance and birth weight. A couple of studies have linked decreased hand grip strength to increased risk for AMD (no OR, RR


1. Bird AC, Bressler NM, Bressler SB, et al., An international classification and grading system for age-related maculopathy and age-related macular degeneration, Surv Ophthalmol, 1995;39:367–74.


2. Klein R, Klein BEK, Tomany SC, et al., Ten-year incidence and progression of age-related maculopathy, Ophthalmology, 2002;109:1767–79.


3. Evans J, Wormald R, Is the incidence of registrable age-related macular degeneration increasing?, Br J Ophthalmol, 1996;80:9–14.


4. Yong VK, Morgan WH, Cooper RL, et al., Trends in registered blindness and its causes over 19 years in Western Australia, Ophthalmic Epidemiol, 2006;13:35–42.


5. Njiric S, Misljenovic T, Mikulicic M, Pavicevic L, Incidence of age-related macular degeneration in correlation with age, sex and occupation, Coll Antropol 2007;31:107–10.


6. Korobelnik JF, Moore N, Blin P, et al., Estimating the yearly number of eyes with treatable neovascular age-related macular degeneration using a direct standardization method and a markov model, Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 2006;47:4270–6.


7. Bonnel S, Mohand-Said S, Sahel J-A, The aging of the retina, Exp Gerontol, 2003;38:825–31.


8. Kaur C, Foulds WS, Ling EA, Blood–retinal barrier in hypoxic ischaemic conditions: basic concepts, clinical features and management, Prog Retin Eye Res, 2008;27:622–47.


9. Moore DJ, Age-related variation in the hydraulic conductivity of Bruch’s membrane, Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 1995;36:1290–7.


10. Wing GL, The topography and age relationship of lipofuscin concentration in the retinal pigment epithelium, Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 1978;17:601–7.


11. Katz ML, Drea CM, Eldred GE, et al., Influence of early photoreceptor degeneration on lipofuscin in the retinal pigment epithelium, Exp Eye Res, 1986;43:561–73.


12. Bird A, Marshall J, Retinal pigment epithelium detachments in the elderly, Trans Ophthalmol Soc UK, 1986;105:674–82.


13. Zarbin M, Current concepts in the pathogenesis of age-related macular degeneration, Arch Ophthalmol, 2004;122:598–614.


14. Wallace DC, Brown MD, Melov S, Graham B, Lott M. Mitochondrial biology, degenerative diseases and aging. Biofactors 1998;7:187–190.


15. Dargel R, Lipid peroxidation – a common pathogenetic mechanism?, Exp Toxicol Pathol, 1992;44:169–81.


16. Delapaz M, Anderson RE, Region and age-dependent variation in susceptibility of the human retina to lipid-peroxidation, Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 1992;33:3497–9.


17. Organisciak DT, Vaughan DK, Retinal light damage: mechanisms and protection, Prog Retin Eye Res, 2009;29:113–34.


18. Wiegand RD, Giusto NM, Rapp LM, Anderson RE, Evidence for rod outer segment lipid-peroxidation following constant illumination of the rat retina, Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 1983;24:1433–5.


19. Kasahara E, Lin LR, Ho YS, Reddy VN, SOD2 protects against oxidation-induced apoptosis in mouse retinal pigment epithelium: implications for age-related macular degeneration, Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 2005;46:3426–34.


20. Wassell J, Davies S, Bardsley W, Boulton M, The photoreactivity of the retinal age, pigment lipofuscin, J Biol Chem, 1999;274:23828–32.


21. Delori FC, Goger DG, Dorey CK, Age-related accumulation and spatial distribution of lipofuscin in RPE of normal subjects, Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 2001;42:1855–66.


22. Rozanowska M, Wessels J, Boulton M, et al. Blue light-induced singlet oxygen generation by retinal lipofuscin in non-polar media, Free Radic Biol Med,


1998;24:1107–12.


23. Rozanowski B, Burke JM, Boulton ME, et al., Human RPE melanosomes protect from photosensitized and iron-mediated oxidation but become pro-oxidant in the presence of iron upon photodegradation, Investi Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 2008;49:2838–47.


24. Sarna T, Burke JM, Korytowski W, et al., Loss of melanin from human RPE with aging: possible role of melanin photooxidation, Exp Eye Res, 2003;76:89–98.


25. Warburton S, Davis WE, Southwick K, et al., Proteomic and phototoxic characterization of melanolipofuscin: correlation to disease and model for its origin, Mol Vis, 2007;13:318–29.


26. Yoshimura N, Age-related macular degeneration and genetics, Clin Exp Ophthalmol, 2010;38:1.


27. Katta S, Kaur I, Chakrabarti S, The molecular genetic basis of age-related macular degeneration: an overview, J Genet, 2009;88:425–49.


28. Baird PN, Hageman GS, Guymer RH, New era for personalized medicine: the diagnosis and management of age-related macular degeneration, Clin Exp Ophthalmol, 2009;37:814–21.


29. Shuler RK, Schmidt S, Gallins P, et al., Phenotype analysis of patients with the risk variant LOC387715 (A69S) in age-related macular degeneration, Am J Ophthalmol, 2008;145:303–7.


30. Seddon JM, Francis PJ, George S, et al., Association of CFH Y402H and LOC387715 A69S with progression of age-related macular degeneration. JAMA, 2007;297:1793–800.


31. Patel N, Adewoyin T, Chong NV, Age-related macular degeneration: a perspective on genetic studies, Eye, 2008;22:768–76.


32. Gorin MB, Breitner JC, De Jong PT, et al., The genetics of age- related macular degeneration, Mol Vis, 1999;5:29.


33. Smith W, Mitchell P, Family history and age-related maculopathy: the Blue Mountains eye study, Arch Ophthalmol, 1998;26:203–6.


34. Klein M, Mauldin W, Stoumbos V, Heredity and age-related macular degeneration. Observations in monozygotic twins, Arch Ophthalmol, 1994;112:932–7.


35. Hyman LG, Lilienfeld AM, Ferris FL, Fine SL, Senile macular degeneration – a case–control study, Am J Epidemiol, 1983;118:213–27.


36. Ting AYC, Lee TKM, MacDonald IM, Genetics of age-related macular degeneration, Curr Opin Ophthalmol, 2009;20:369–76.


37. Meyers S, Zachary A, Monozygotic twins with age-related macular degeneration, Arch Opthalmol, 1988;106:651–3.


38. Meyers S, A twin study on age-related macular degeneration, Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc, 1994;92:775–844.


39. Meyers S, Greene T, Gutman F, A twin study of age-related macular degeneration, Am J Ophthalmol, 1995;120:757–66.


40. Melrose M, Magargal L, Lucier A, Identical twins with subretinal neovascularization complicating senile macular degeneration, Ophthalic Surg, 1985;16:648–51.


41. Grizzard W, Beck R, Twin study of age-related macular degeneration, Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 1994;35:1504.


42. Seddon JM, Ajani UA, Mitchell BD, Familial aggregation of age-related maculopathy, Am J Ophthalmol, 1997;123:199–206.


43. Klaver C, Wolfs R, Assink J, Genetic risk of age-related maculopathy. Population-based familial aggregation study, Arch Ophthalmol, 1998;116:1646–51.


44. Silvestri G, Johnston P, Hughes A, Is genetic predisposition an important risk factor in age-related macular degeneration?, Eye, 1994;8:564–8.


45. Silvestri G, Age-related macular degeneration: genetics and implications for detection and treatment, Mol Med Today, 1997;3:84–91.


46. Starita C, Hussain AA, Pagliarini S, Marshall J, Hydrodynamics


with ARMD risk (no risk statistics reported)265 studies.266,267


Unusual optic disc appearance has been associated but repealed in other


Babies with increased birth weight were found to have a higher possibility of developing AMD than those with lower birth weight in one study (OR 1.5)268


and this was echoed in another study,


but only in white people for ARM (OR 1.2), although AMD risk was not assessed in this study.269


Summary


There are many risk factors associated with ARMD development, with varying degrees of consistency. Age, smoking and genetics appear to be congruously linked with increased risk for developing the disease. With the costly management of neovascular AMD and limited treatment for dry AMD, the potential for modification of environmental factors in reducing the risk of ARMD development is an important research area. The oxidative stress theory for the aetiology of ARMD provokes interest in how antioxidants may play a role in reducing the risk of disease development and progression. n


of ageing Bruch’s membrane: implications for macular disease, Exp Eye Res, 1996;62:565–71.


47. Feeneyburns L, Ellersieck MR, Age-related changes in the ultrastructure of Bruch’s membrane, Am J Ophthalmol, 1985;100:686–97.


48. Karwatowski WSS, Jeffries TE, Duance VC, et al., Preparation of Bruch’s membrane and analysis of the age-related changes in the structural collagens, Br J Ophthalmol, 1995;79:944–52.


49. Ho TC, DelPriore LV, Reattachment of cultured human retinal pigment epithelium to extracellular matrix and human Bruch’s membrane, Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 1997;38:1110–18.


50. Booij JC, Baas DC, Beisekeeva J, et al., The dynamic nature of Bruch’s membrane, Prog Retin Eye Res, 29:1–18.


51. Sarks S, Cherepanoff S, Killingsworth M, Sarks J, Relationship of basal laminar deposit and membranous debris to the clinical presentation of early age-related macular degeneration, Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 2007;48:968–77.


52. Curcio C, Millican C, Basal linear deposit and large drusen are specific for early age-related maculopathy, Arch Ophthalmol, 1999;117:329–39.


53. Green WR, Enger C, Age-related macular degeneration histopathologic studies – the 1992 Lorenz E. Zimmerman lecture, Ophthalmology, 1993;100:1519–35.


54. Spraul CW, Lang GE, Grossniklaus HE, Lang GK, Characteristics of drusen and Bruch’s membrane in post-mortem eye with age-related macular degeneration, Ophthalmologe, 1998;95:73–9.


55. Johnson PT, Lewis GP, Talaga KC, et al., Drusen-associated degeneration in the retina, Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 2003;44:4481–8.


56. Reale E, Groos S, Eckardt U, et al., New components of ‘basal laminar deposits’ in age-related macular degeneration, Cells Tissues Organs, 2009;190:170–81.


57. Lommatzsch A, Hermans P, Weber B, Pauleikhoff D, Complement factor H variant Y402H and basal laminar deposits in exudative age-related macular degeneration, Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol, 2007;245:1713–16.


58. Guymer R, Luthert P, Bird A, Changes in Bruch’s membrane and related structures with age, Prog Retin Eye Res, 1999;18:59–90.


59. Pauleikhoff D, Harper C, Marshall J, Bird A, Ageing changes in Bruch’s membrane. A histochemical and morphological study, Ophthalmology, 1990;97:171–8.


60. Moore DJ, Clover GM, The effect of age on the macromolecular permeability of human Bruch’s membrane, Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 2001;42:2970–5.


61. Curcio CA, Owsley C, Jackson GR, Spare the rods, save the cones in aging and age-related maculopathy, Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 2000;41:2015–18.


62. Sarks S, Ageing and degeneration in the macular region: a clinico-pathological study, Br J Ophthalmol, 1976;60:324–41.


63. Sun K, Cai H, Tezel TH, et al., Bruch’s membrane aging decreases phagocytosis of outer segments by retinal pigment epithelium, Mol Vis, 2007;13:2310–19.


64. Linsenmeier RA, Padnick-Silver L, Metabolic dependence of photoreceptors on the choroid in the normal and detached retina, Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 2000;41:3117–23.


65. Ohno-Matsui K, Morita I, Tombran-Tink J, et al., Novel mechanism for age-related macular degeneration: an equilibrium shift between the angiogenesis factors VEGF and PEDF, J Cell Physiol, 2001;189:323–33.


66. Schlingemann RO, Role of growth factors and the wound healing response in age-related macular degeneration, Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol, 2004;242:91–101.


67. Holekamp NM, Bouck N, Volpert O, Pigment epithelium- derived factor is deficient in the vitreous of patients with


150


EUROPEAN OPHTHALMIC REVIEW


Page 1  |  Page 2  |  Page 3  |  Page 4  |  Page 5  |  Page 6  |  Page 7  |  Page 8  |  Page 9  |  Page 10  |  Page 11  |  Page 12  |  Page 13  |  Page 14  |  Page 15  |  Page 16  |  Page 17  |  Page 18  |  Page 19  |  Page 20  |  Page 21  |  Page 22  |  Page 23  |  Page 24  |  Page 25  |  Page 26  |  Page 27  |  Page 28  |  Page 29  |  Page 30  |  Page 31  |  Page 32  |  Page 33  |  Page 34  |  Page 35  |  Page 36  |  Page 37  |  Page 38  |  Page 39  |  Page 40  |  Page 41  |  Page 42  |  Page 43  |  Page 44  |  Page 45  |  Page 46  |  Page 47  |  Page 48  |  Page 49  |  Page 50  |  Page 51  |  Page 52  |  Page 53  |  Page 54  |  Page 55  |  Page 56  |  Page 57  |  Page 58  |  Page 59  |  Page 60  |  Page 61  |  Page 62  |  Page 63  |  Page 64  |  Page 65  |  Page 66  |  Page 67  |  Page 68  |  Page 69  |  Page 70  |  Page 71  |  Page 72  |  Page 73  |  Page 74  |  Page 75  |  Page 76